Enemies: Mussolini and the Anti-Fascists (book excerpts, review & graphic)

In the fall of 2000, I visited my Alma mater and spoke with my former history professor, who holds a Ph.D. from Columbia. I was concerned about voting irregularities in the election and was assured that the tradition of democracy in America has a certain momentum of its own and unlikely to go anywhere anytime soon. Of course, this was pre-9/11, Patriot I and soon to be Patriot II. The next time I visit the college, I will seek out the professors to see if she has changed her opinion and is now concerned.

The small book, "Enemies: Mussolini and the Antifascists", fills in the blanks on the history of fascism and antifascism in Italy and among the Fuorusciti (Italian Antifascist expatriates) in the U.S., France and Spain.

It is also a cautionary tale on how an elected body can cede power to a strong man in the name of National Security and Order. Prior to fascism, Italy did have a free government based on liberal, constitutional principles. As the author, Patrick J. Gallo tells us, “A majority of those who were in a position to make the liberal system work lacked the commitment to do so, and they could no forge the necessary consensus to do so.” In other words, the opposition to Fascism was to divided to be effective. Furthermore, the author notes an historic misstep, “Many liberals thought that the Fascists could be tamed once they came to power.”

The author holds a Ph.D. in Political Science from NYU where he is also a professor. The book is good, though I was concerned that the first chapter presupposes prior-knowledge, but this was not the case with subsequent chapters were the book soared. I hope that Mr. Gallo next devotes himself to the Anti-Fascist movement in 1930’s Spain, of which there is a great need for scholarly research and books, the last U.S. published being 1968. (If someone has info on more recent please let us know-thanks).

Book Excerpts:

“Mussolini declared that fascism was the defense of Western Civilization.”

“War was a fundamental ideological ingredient in fascism.”

“Mass arrests took place following the creation of a ‘special court’ for the defense of State.”

“A number of Anti-Fascists were brought to trial and were sentenced to terms that extended from five to fifteen years in prison. The Italian public had no knowledge that a “trial” had even taken place.

“The pliant parliament sanctioned the removal of Italian Citizenship to all opponents of the regime.”

“A special tribunal was established for the Defense of State.”

“Mussolini ordered the crucifix to be placed in all of the schools and law courts to win the support of Catholics.”

“Mussolini introduced additional legislation which was intended to appeal to the Church. Laws were introduced protecting public morality and the family.”

“Fascists planted bombs in France and blamed it on the antifascists.”

“Most Italian-Americans found fascism unattractive.”

“The conquest of Ethiopia at last gave Mussolini the domestic prestige to implement both the revolutionary foreign policy to which he aspired since the 1920’s and its domestic compliment.”

“Mussolini used up almost a year’s national revenue on war material for Ethiopia.
These costs were hidden from the Italian-Public.”

“Mussolini used up almost a year’s national revenue on war material for Ethiopia.
These costs were hidden from the Italian-Public.”

“Mussolini authorized the use of terrorist methods: the destruction of villages and the use of poison gas in subduing the Ethiopians.”

“Prior to the war, the Holy See was greatly disturbed by Mussolini’s Ethiopian Adventure. ‘There is talk of a war of aggression and conquest which is truly disconcerting… Self-defense constitutes a right, but the exercise of this right may be harmful if it does not observe certain limits and moderation. The need to expand is not a right per se.”

“American Antifascists split on ideology and tactics were unable to get the support of American Labor.”

“Within the U.S., the Italian-American Fascists and Anti-Fascists clashed often in a number of bloody confrontations during the twenties with local police forces siding with the fascists.”

“Many Anti-fascists concluded that fascism could not be overthrown, unless all antifascists untied and cast aside their ideological differences.”

“In three encyclicals, Pope Pius Xi did not equivocate in his denunciation of Nazi Germany of which he: ‘It rests upon principles opposed to Christianity.’ He went on to disprove the Nazi claim that faith to Nazi Germany was equivalent to faith in God.”

“In 1937 Pope Pius XI declared that eugenic sterilization contravened canon law. He stressed that man had no business interfering in God’s handiwork, including his less than perfect creations.”

“In 1925 Cardinal Pacelli said that Hitler was a violent man who would walk over corpses to achieve his objectives.”

*My family. By 1940 my great Uncle Tom, who owned several civilian army barbershops, had had enough and sent his bust of Mussolini flying out the fourth floor window of his Bronx Apartment. The story is a legend in my family. Some renditions have the window closed and the bust smashing through glass, and others the window opened, the offending item sailing through. Luckily, the bust didn't hit any passerby's! Later Uncle Tom was to lose a son who fought in the U.S. army to liberate Italy.